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A Need for Community Gay Club Culture The Music of the Gay Club Scene Ballroom A Need For Community Throughout its history, the LGBTQ+ community has been targeted and harassed solely for loving who they love when enjoying a night out on the town. This made going out in public, especially to party scenes such as clubs and bars, a difficult and ultimately threatening experience. Throughout the late 20th century, the LGBTQ+ community took things into their own hands and created their own nighttime scene, including gay bars and ballrooms. A Need For Community Throughout their history, the LGBTQ community has been targeted and harassed solely for loving who they love, a normal occurrence and act for the straight community when they are out enjoying a night out on the town. This made going out in public, especially to party scenes such as clubs and bars, a difficult and ultimately threatening experience. Throughout the later 20th century, the LGBTQ community took things into their own hands and created their own night time scene including gay bars and ballroom. ​ ​ This photo is from a clip of one of FX’s newest shows, “Pose”. The show is based on and depicts the queer ballroom scene in New York during the late 20th Century. The photo shows a judgement round following a ballroom competition. The show follows different members of the LGBTQ community who all have differing identities and their struggles between themselves and society, but also their strength in overcoming obstacles. FX’s casting team worked to hire a cast representative of the characters. The show is available on Netflix. (Image source: Michael Nagle/For The Times) Gay Club Culture Fun Fact: During the 1970’s, Hollywood was home to a buzzing underground LGBTQ club culture. In the midst of Hollywood's constant movie productions, many warehouses once used to store materials and supplies became empty and abandoned after use. These small warehouses (averaging around 3,000 square feet) became home to the the gay club scene at night. Their low rent allowed community members to gather for a night full of dance and music to embrace their identities. Gay bars provided a safe space for LGBTQ+ community members to go without fear of being harassed for their identity, and it allowed them to meet other members of the community. However, gay bars were still not fully accepted into societal norms and were kept very small with bland front openings. They often were found in the poorer and underdeveloped parts of town, hidden behind inconspicuous doors and tinted windows, so outsiders were unaware of the scene inside. While hiding from society was a necessary survival skill, inside members would dance together all night. Gay bars have also been the starting site of many historical LGBTQ+ tragedies, including the Black Cat Tavern , Stonewall , and Pulse Night Club , all of which sparked revolutions for the rights of the LGBTQ+ community. Origins Gay club culture originated in the early to mid-1900s but truly began to thrive and grow in the '70s and '80s. It was filled with vibrant music, unique dance moves, and extravagant style. There were no rules or norms, but rather, the trend was to be your authentic self and to embrace differences and uniqueness. While the club culture of the ’70s and ’80s invited all members of the LGBTQ+ community, it particularly attracted and was run by the transgender community. Many popular terms such as “ballroom,” “vogue,” and “disco” originated through this. The Music of the Gay Club Scene Music was a huge component of the club culture as DJs would showcase “unpopular” music at the time, which often highlighted singers with LGBTQ+ and POC identities. As this music became more well-known, it began making its way out of the club scene and infiltrating society. For example, the popular song "YMCA" was initially written to attract gay audiences and captivate the club and bar scenes. Over time, the song became much more popular and mainstream, just like the iconic disco ball. Ballroom This photo stems from a documentary entitled “Paris is Burning” which revolves around the ballroom scene. It focuses on the specific experiences of Black and Brown men as well as transgender women. The purpose of the documentary was to provide information on the club and ballroom scene and to open the eyes of straight audience members to depict the struggles faced by members of the LGBTQ community. (Image Source: Academy Entertainment) Ballroom thrived in the heart of New York beginning in the 1920s into the ’70s and ’80s. The ballroom scene mostly consists of drag queens who compete against each other in various categories. The ballroom scene allowed many people to express their gender identity and sexuality without judgment openly. Many times, attendees would be a part of a “house,” which was their only true source of a family at the time and provided them guidance and mentorship through their younger years and introduction into the LGBTQ+ community. Fun Fact: The popular and unique dance to “Vogue” by Madonna was inspired by and taken from the ballroom scene. Want to learn more about the origin of the ballroom scene? Click here to read more about Willi Ninja, the Grandfather of Vogue. References Chiland, E. (2016, September 7). A look back at Hollywood’s underground gay club culture of the 1970s . Curbed LA; Curbed LA. https://la.curbed.com/2016/9/7/12827582/hollywood-gay-culture-disco-1970s-night-club-history Garau, A. (2017, March 8). Disco History: How The New York Disco Scene Changed America . All That’s Interesting; All That’s Interesting. https://allthatsinteresting.com/disco-history Lester Fabian Brathwaite. (2018, June 6). “Pose” on FX: New York City Ball Culture, “Paris Is Burning,” Vogue . Rolling Stone; Rolling Stone. https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/striking-a-pose-a-brief-history-of-ball-culture-629280/

Context: Criminalization of Gay Bars The Stonewall Riots Legacy Context: Criminalization of Gay Bars The Stonewall Riots were a violent uprising in 1969 speaking out against police brutality following a raid of the Stonewall Inn. The Stonewall Inn was a popular gay bar run by the Mafia in Greenwich Village of New York City. During the 1960s, however, same-sex relations were illegal in many places, including New York City. As such, the New York State Liquor Authority sanctioned frequent police raids of known gay bars, claiming that the gathering of homosexual individuals was “disorderly.” While these restrictions were overturned in 1966, police harassment of gay bars continued until much later, particularly as many operated without a liquor license due to their being owned by the Mafia. The Stonewall Riots A crowd of protesters confronting the police during the Stonewall Riots. On the morning of June 28th, 1969, rather than dispersing during the police raid that occurred, a violent crowd formed , and the Stonewall Riots began. The difference between this particular police raid and previous instances was that it came without warning and led to the NYPD roughly shoving both patrons and employees alike into police vehicles to be arrested. Starting with one woman shouting, “Why don’t you guys do something!” things quickly escalated as a crowd of hundreds formed, throwing bottles, pennies, and rocks at the police. Although it is not known for sure, it is alleged that the first brick was thrown by Marsha P. Johnson , an outspoken and notable activist for LGBTQ+ rights. The rioting and protesting continued for six continuous days, and the uprising is known as one of the first major protests bringing new attention to the movement for equal rights for LGBTQ+ people. Legacy The Stonewall Inn in 2019 (Image Source: Antigng/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY SA ) The Stonewall Riots, also known as the Stonewall uprising, was an important event in sparking new fervor for the LGBTQ+ rights movement. As a result of the riots, various new LGBTQ+ rights groups were begun, such as the Gay Liberation Front. Although the Stonewall riots did not begin the LGBTQ+ rights movement, they were crucial to bringing new attention to LGBTQ+ activism and generating newfound support for the movement. For information about LGBTQ+ activism preceding the Stonewall Riots, visit our article on the Black Cat Protests .

In 1977, Dade County, Florida, issued an ordinance to protect people from discrimination in housing, employment, and other services based on sexual orientation. The same year, Anita Bryant, celebrity singer and spokeswoman for Florida orange juice, started a movement to repeal the new anti-discrimination ordinance. Anti-LGBTQ+ Activism Anita Bryant, 1977 (Source: Word Records/Wikimedia Commons) Formed in opposition to the anti-discrimination ordinance, Save Our Children was the first organized group to actively fight against the LGBTQ+ rights movement. Headed by Bryant, the group spread claims that “homosexuals” were corrupt and recruited youth. The goal was to deceive voters into believing homosexuality was dangerous. The Humans Under Attack Committee (HUAC) was formed to protest against Bryant’s discriminatory and homophobic rhetoric. The HUAC urged consumers to boycott all Florida orange juice products in defense of civil rights. Discussions of LGBTQ+ political rights made headlines, and word of the boycott spread nationwide. Gay bars were no longer serving orange juice and, consequently, screwdriver cocktails. Instead, the bars served the “Anita Bryant” cocktail, a mix of vodka and apple juice. Bryant's anti-queer crusade was a success. In one of the largest turnouts in Dade County’s history of special elections, voters repealed the anti-discrimination ordinance by a majority vote on June 7, 1977. However, the loss was not the end of the fight for civil rights. That very day, openly gay politician Harvey Milk was elected to the San Fransisco Board of Supervisors. At the time, Anita Bryant likely had no idea that she'd find a formidable opponent in Milk, and that he would eventually help to bring about her downfall. The Briggs Initiative Anita Byant Protest in Chicago, 1977 (Source: Queer Music Heritage) Following Anita Bryant's success in 1977, Senator John Briggs of California introduced a bill to fire teachers who "publicly engaged in or promoted homosexuality." Anita Bryant supported the bill, regurgitating the same homophobic rhetoric that the Save Our Children organization used to compel voters. In 1978, Harvey Milk gave "The Hope Speech" on Gay Freedom Day in opposition to the Briggs Initiative, or Proposition 6. Despite losing their fight against Anita Bryant in Miami, Milk referenced the positive impact the initiative had on spreading awareness of LGBTQ+ issues and mobilizing the queer community. Milk said: "Unless you have dialogue, unless you open the walls of dialogue, you can never reach to change people's opinion. In those two weeks, more good and bad, but more about the word homosexual and gay was written than probably in the history of mankind. Once you have dialogue starting, you know you can break down prejudice." On November 7th, 1978, California’s Prop 6 was defeated by over a million votes. This was a huge win and a milestone in the fight for gay rights. The Briggs Initiative was the first anti-gay ballot measure not to be passed by voters. The Downfall of Anita Bryant Although some supported Anita Bryant, backlash from her homophobic crusade and her affiliation with the failed Briggs Initiative caused her to lose sponsorships and work. After the special election in 1977, Anita's husband, Bob Green, claimed her show business was down 70%. She also could not get a record deal for her new song, "There's Nothing Like the Love Between a Woman and a Man." By 1980, Anita Bryant's image fell even farther from grace, even among her own crowd. The Florida Citrus Commission decided not to renew their contract with Anita, dropping her after 12 years as the spokeswoman. During the same year, she divorced her husband. The divorce caused uproar among Christian groups that once supported her. They viewed it as going against the family values she preached. Anita later went on to write a book and open a theater. Due to the immense lack of support and work Anita received after her divorce, she would file for bankruptcy twice by 2001. She has mostly stayed out of the public eye for the past 20 years, but Anita now must decide what is more important to her: her family or her values. In 2021, Anita's granddaughter, Sarah Green, publicly came out as gay after getting engaged. Green states Anita expressed her old views regarding her granddaughter's sexuality. It is unclear whether Anita will attend the wedding. Legacy Anita Bryant was the catalyst for individuals to unite and take a stand against homophobic rhetoric and anti-gay politics. LGBTQ+ activist groups, like HUAC and Human Rights for Everyone (HERE), were formed nationwide. Only months after Anita's crusade, Harvey Milk became the first openly gay elected official in California. By 1980, 120 companies and 40 cities had passed various protections against discrimination based on sexual orientation. Anita Bryant won the 1977 battle in Dade County, but she lost the war on long-term LGBTQ+ rights in the United States. References Boas Hayes, C. (2013, September 22). Florida Gay Rights Activists Boycott Orange Juice, 1977-1980 | Global Nonviolent Action Database . https://nvdatabase.swarthmore.edu/content/florida-gay-rights-activists-boycott-orange-juice-1977-1980#case-study-detail California Proposition 6, the Briggs Initiative (1978) . (n.d.). Ballotpedia. https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_6,_the_Briggs_Initiative_(1978) D’Emilio, J. (n.d.). Dade County, USA, 1977—Chicago Stories by John D’Emilio . OutHistory. https://outhistory.org/exhibits/show/chicago-stories/dade-county-usa-1977// Douglas, D. (1977). Florida Orange Juice Boycott and Referendum. Gay Scene , 7 (10). Archives of Sexuality and Gender. http://link.gale.com/apps/doc/YPADEH852562881/AHSI?u=csuf_main&sid=zotero&xid=d0af32e0 Endres, N. (2009). Bryant, Anita (b. 1940) . Glbtq. http://www.glbtqarchive.com/ssh/bryant_anita_S.pdf Higgins, B. W. (2012, June 8). The strange but true history of Indianapolis’ gay bars . The Indianapolis Star. https://www.indystar.com/story/life/2013/12/12/indianapolis-gay-bars/3997591/ Josh Levin. (n.d.). Anita Bryant’s War on Gay Rights (No. 1). https://slate.com/transcripts/cWNjZ0ZuOU1TdjBUR0p3MHVIbVdvZG9MNWxNNHlvdXZCd2JaNXhIM053bz0= Kohler, W. (2020, November 7). Gay History - November 7, 1978: Prop 6 aka The Briggs Initiative Defeated . Back2Stonewall. http://www.back2stonewall.com/2020/11/gay-history-november-7-1978-prop-6briggs-initiative-defeated.html Milk, H. (1978). The Hope Speech . https://terpconnect.umd.edu/~jklumpp/ARD/MilkSpeech.pdf Monuments, P., & Perez, F. (n.d.). H.E.R.E. (Human Rights for Everyone) Activists Unite Against Anita Baker—June 18, 1977 . New Orleans Historical. https://neworleanshistorical.org/items/show/1429 Ring, T. (2018, August 31). The Briggs Initiative: Remembering a Crucial Moment in Gay History . Advocate. https://www.advocate.com/politics/2018/8/31/briggs-initiative-remembering-crucial-moment-gay-history Rosen, R. J. (2014, February 26). A Glimpse Into 1970s Gay Activism . The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/02/a-glimpse-into-1970s-gay-activism/284077/ Smith, H. (2009, June 24). Stonewall at 40: The Voice Articles That Sparked a Final Night of Rioting . The Village Voice. https://www.villagevoice.com/2009/06/24/stonewall-at-40-the-voice-articles-that-sparked-a-final-night-of-rioting/ Stutz, C. (2019, November 8). LGBTQ History Critical Points From 1966 to Present | Equality Nevada [Equality Nevada]. https://www.equalitynv.org/2019/11/08/lgbtq-history-critical-points-from-1966-to-present/, https://www.equalitynv.org/2019/11/08/lgbtq-history-critical-points-from-1966-to-present/ The Nation: The Gaycott Turns Ugly. (1977, November 21). Time . http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,915719,00.html Tobin, T. (2002, October 2). Bankruptcy, ill will plague Bryant . St. Petersburg Times. http://web.archive.org/web/20021002013002/http://sptimes.com/2002/04/28/State/Bankruptcy__ill_will_.shtml

Who was Sylvia Rivera? Early Life Exploring Identity Stonewall Riots and S.T.A.R. Transgender Inclusivity Death and Legacy Who was Sylvia Rivera? Sylvia Rivera was a Latina LGBTQ+ activist, drag queen, and trans activist during the Civil Rights Movement. Rivera is most known for her involvement in the Stonewall Riots and being the co-founder of Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries (S.T.A.R.), which she led alongside Marsha P. Johnson . She also was a fixture of demonstrations with the Gay Liberation Front. Early Life Rivera was born to Puerto Rican and Venezuelan parents in New York City on July 2, 1951. Rivera's birth father abandoned her as an infant. She began living with her grandmother at the age of three years after being orphaned when her mother committed suicide. However, her grandmother rejected Rivera's effeminate behavior, forcing her to work on the streets as a child prostitute at 11 years old. With their support, she started identifying as a drag queen and calling herself “Sylvia.” Sylvia Rivera in 1970. (Image Source: New York Public Library/Kay Tobin) Exploring Identity Rivera never firmly confirmed her gender identity, referring to herself as a gay man, gay girl, and drag queen. In her 2002 essay, "Queens In Exile, The Forgotten Ones," Rivera states: "I'm tired of being labeled. I don't even like the label transgender . I'm tired of living with labels. I just want to be who I am." Stonewall Riots and S.T.A.R. A photo of Sylvia Rivera at the STAR Rally. (Image Source: Roseleechs/Wikimedia Commons) In 1969, at 17 years old, Rivera was at the Stonewall Riots , where she’s said to have thrown a molotov cocktail. Alongside Marsha P. Johnson, Rivera founded the Street Transvestite Action Revolutionaries (STAR) organization in 1970. STAR sought to provide housing and other assistance to gay and trans sex workers and homeless youth in New York City. Want to learn more about the Stonewall Riots? Click here.   Transgender Inclusivity It was often difficult for Rivera to receive support from other activists in the LGBTQ+ community. Many gay and lesbian activists were cisgender, white, middle-class individuals who didn’t understand the struggles she and many other transgender youth had gone through. This became most clear with the Gay Rights Bill; backroom deals were made between lawmakers and queer activists to exclude transgender rights specifically. This betrayal led Rivera to disappear from her activism for 20 years until she returned in the mid-1990s to continue fighting for transgender rights. Death and Legacy An illustration of Sylvia Rivera and Marsha P. Johnson at the 1973 NYC Pride Parade (Image Source: Gary LeGault /Wikimedia Commons After briefly resurrecting STAR (this time changing "Transvestite" to "Transgender"), Sylvia Rivera died on February 12, 2002, from liver cancer. Rivera is credited with being at the forefront of the LGBTQ+ civil rights movement. She is currently the only transgender person in the Smithsonian’s National Portrait Gallery, and the Sylvia Rivera Law Project was founded shortly after her death to support transgender and gender non-conforming individuals. She played a pivotal role in providing a space within the broader LGBTQ+ community for transgender and gender-nonconforming individuals and drag queens, paving the way for the work that has been done in the decades since her passing. References Rothberg, E. (n.d.). Sylvia Rivera . National Women's History Museum. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/sylvia-rivera . Goodman, E., Americo, L., Riedel, S., Tran, C., & Reign, E. (2019, March 26). Sylvia Rivera changed queer and Trans Activism Forever . them. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from https://www.them.us/story/sylvia-rivera . Pak, E. (2020, January 7). Sylvia Rivera . Biography.com. Retrieved October 11, 2021, from https://www.biography.com/activist/sylvia-rivera . Nestle, J., Howell, C., Wilchins, R. A., & Rivera, S. (2002). Queens in Exile, the Forgotten Ones. In Genderqueer: Voices from beyond the sexual binary (pp. 70–88). essay, Alyson Books.

Who was Alan Turing? Early Life World War II Sexuality Death and Legacy Who was Alan Turing? The famous British mathematician and solver of the Nazi Enigma Code: Alan Turing. Turing is also credited with being the father of the modern-day computer. (Image Source: Alamy) Alan Turing was an openly gay British mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher, physicist, and biologist. He lived from June 23, 1912, until his death on June 7th, 1954. Turing is credited with breaking the Nazi Enigma Code during World War II and is often referred to as the father of the modern-day computer. In the 1950s, Turing was arrested for his sexuality and was forced to undergo chemical castration. Alan Turing profoundly impacted history and the world as we know it today. Early Life The October 1950 issue of Mind, an academic journal published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Mind Association. This issue contains Alan Turing’s published paper on the idea of a “Universal Machine.” (Image Source: Mind Association and Oxford University Press) Alan Turing was the grandson of the Rev. John Robert Turing and descended from a family that included a baronet (A hereditary title awarded by the British crown). Throughout his schooling, Turing was recognized for his talent. After receiving his first-class honors in mathematics from King’s College, Cambridge, at 22, Turing went on to invent computer science. In 1936, Turing published a paper that is recognized as the foundation for computer science as we know it. The paper analyzed what it meant for a person to follow a definite method or procedure to perform a task. For these purposes, Turing invented the idea of a “Universal Machine” that could decode and perform any set of instructions. Turing also theorized about artificial intelligence, something that is still being developed to this day. World War II The Bletchley Park bombe that was in active use during WW2 to decode Nazi messages. (Image Source: Unknown) During World War II, Alan Turing assisted in breaking the German Enigma code. The German Enigma machine was a device used by the Nazi German military to encode strategic messages before and during World War II. Many people dedicated their time and energy to breaking this code, and Alan Turing was one of them. Turing invented a machine called the bombe that decoded the German Enigma messages very quickly, cracking all of them. The breaking of the Enigma code is theorized to have ended the war two years earlier. Many modern-day theorists speculate that if the Enigma code had not been broken, the outcome of World War II could have led to a completely different world than we know today. Exploring Identity Alan Turing, Fred Clayton (another student of King’s College), and two refugee boys from Austria, Robert and Karl. This very image was used by the GCHQ to apologize for their actions against Turing. (Image Source: Susannah Ireland) Less than 100 years ago, homosexuality was illegal in The United Kingdom. However, this did not stop Alan Turing from being openly gay and even partaking in sexual acts with other men. In 1952, Turing was arrested for having a relationship with a 19-year-old, Arnold Murray, while he was 40. Sadly, Turing admitted to “acts of gross indecency” during the trial, and his punishment was to undergo chemical castration, the alternative to being sent to prison. However, this conviction meant that Turing lost his security clearance and had to instantly stop working at the GCHQ (Government Communications Headquarters) in the United Kingdom. Death and Legacy Queen Elizabeth II later went on to issue Alan Turing a royal pardon for his so-called “crimes.” (Image Source: Cecelia Chen/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 ) Alan Turing died on June 7th, 1954, and was not found dead until a day later by his housekeeper. Cyanide poisoning was found to be the cause of death. When the body was discovered, a half-eaten apple was beside him. This apple was not tested for cyanide poisoning, but it was theorized that Turing committed suicide with the apple by reenacting a scene from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. This theory came to light when David Leavitt and Andrew Hodges noted that Turing took “an especially keen pleasure in the scene where the Wicked Queen immerses her apple in the poisonous brew.” No matter the cause of death, Alan Turing will forever be missed. Honors and Recognition In 2009, the now-former Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, issued an apology on behalf of the government to Alan Turing. Brown said that the country owed the mathematician a huge debt. The most notable part of Brown’s speech was the following: “This recognition of Alan’s status as one of Britain’s most famous victims of homophobia is another step towards equality and long overdue.” In 2013, Her Royal Majesty Queen Elizabeth II took it a step further and issued a royal pardon for the so-called “crimes” of Alan Turing. The Queen said she was “graciously pleased to extend Our Grace and Mercy unto the said Alan Mathison Turing and to grant him Our Free Pardon posthumously in respect of the said convictions.” Alan Turing did so much for modern-day society by inventing computer science and changing the course of World War II. The world would be a very different place if it were not for Alan Turing. References Alan Turing: True to Himself . (n.d.). GLSEN. https://www.glsen.org/activity/alan-turing-true-himself Al Jazeera. (2019, July 15). Alan Turing, mathematician and LGBT rights icon, features on £50 . Business and Economy | Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2019/7/15/alan-turing-mathematician-and-lgbt-rights-icon-features-on-50 Jacobson, R. I. E. (2014, November 28). 8 things you didn’t know about Alan Turing . PBS NewsHour. https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/8-things-didnt-know-alan-turing O’Malley, K. (2019, July 15). Alan Turing: Why was the codebreaker convicted and pardoned for his sexuality? The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/alan-turing-new-ps50-banknote-gay-codebreaker-mathematician-sexuality-pardon-a9005086.html NBC Universal. (2015, June 11). Queen Pardons Computing Giant Alan Turing 59 Years After His Suicide . NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/queen-pardons-computing-giant-alan-turing-59-years-after-his-n241

Who was Harvey Milk? Early Life Sexuality Political Career Death and Legacy Who was Harvey Milk? Harvey Milk was the first openly gay elected official in California. Harvey Milk was the first openly gay elected official in the United States. In 1977, he won his seat on the San Francisco Board of Supervisors and became a strong advocate for civil and human rights. His election gave hope to the LGBTQ community as this was the first representation they had ever seen in politics. Unfortunately, Harvey Milk was assassinated quite early into his career prematurely ending his life and sparking his legacy. Early Life Milk was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1977 (Image Source: Daniel Nicoletta) Milk was born in Woodmere, New York, in 1930 into a Lithuanian family. His family practiced the Jewish religion, and his father was a member of the U.S. Navy. Harvey Milk went on to study at the New York State College for Teachers, where he first started bringing up the debate of diversity. After graduating in 1951, he enlisted in the Navy, following in his father's footsteps. Sexuality After leaving the Navy around the 1960s, Milk spent some time in Rhode Island as a driving instructor until his sexual orientation was questioned, and he left. Harvey then moved back to New York, where he took on many different roles. He was a teacher, stock analyst, and at one point a production associate on Broadway. Over the next decade, Harvey Milk began to involve himself more in politics, starting with advocating against the Vietnam War. In 1972, Milk moved to San Francisco, where he was truly able to start embracing his identity. Surrounded by an emerging LGBTQ+ community, he was able to explore and become more confident in himself. Milk and his fellow activists founded the Castro Village Agency, the first organization of primarily LGBTQ+ businesses in the nation. This supported existing LGBTQ+ companies and paved the way for the development of new LGBTQ+ organizations. Political Career Harvey Milk fought vehemently for gay rights in California (Image Source: San Jose University Collection/Ted Sahl) In 1972 and 1974, Harvey Milk ran for the supervisor position in San Francisco and lost both times. This, however, didn’t stop him, as his continuous involvement established his name as one not to be reckoned with in the political world. Following another loss when running for State Assembly, Milk realized that if he rallied up all the voters involved in the Castro’s Village Agency, he would have a much greater chance at succeeding in running as a candidate. This campaign worked, and on January 9, 1978, Harvey Milk was inaugurated as the San Francisco City Council Supervisor. The news of his election as the first openly gay elected official quickly spread throughout the nation. Harvey Milk not only worked to serve the LGBTQ+ community, but many others as well. Some of the main points on his political agenda were to protect LGBTQ and other minority rights, provide low-cost housing, reform tax codes to assist the industry, and provide working mothers with daycares. He advocated for many measures to make the city of San Francisco an overall safer place. Harvey Milk and the Brigg's Initiative One of Milk's major victories was defeating the Brigg's Initiative, a ballot measure that would have prohibited LGBTQ+ and LGBTQ-supporting people from teaching in California's public schools. Learn more about Milk and the Brigg's Initiative here. Death and Legacy Milk's dedication to ending LGBT discrimination paved the way for future LGBT legislation (Image Source: Daniel Nicoletta/Wikimedia Commons CC BY-SA 3.0 ) On November 27, 1978, Harvey Milk's life was tragically taken by Dan White, who was able to sneak into the city hall and assassinate him. His death, however, was not the end of his legacy and did not stop his message from being shared. On the day of his death, many Americans across the country found the courage to come out to honor his life and his belief that no one should live in fear in the closet. His position opened the door for many more LGBTQ+ politicians to step up and get involved. His death shed light on the true horrors of the discrimination and violence faced by the LGBTQ+ community and inspired others to fight for gay rights in his name and to carry on his legacy. References Milk Foundation.org» The Official HARVEY MILK Biography. (2014). Milkfoundation.org. https://milkfoundation.org/about/harvey-milk-biography/

American Psychology Association World Health Organization Legacy Until recently, homosexuality was considered to be a mental illness by both the American Psychiatric Association (APA) and the World Health Organization (WHO). These classifications were a result of the widespread belief that sexual orientations other than heterosexuality were something needing to be cured or remedied, fostered by society’s discomfort with those who fall outside of what was considered “normal.” Now, however, both of these organizations have removed sexual orientation from their classifications of mental illnesses. American Psychiatric Association Protest of the classification of homosexuality as a mental illness by the APA. (Image Source: Cured/Patrick Sammon, Bennett Singer) Since its founding in 1892, the APA has released five editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM), providing information and listings of psychiatric diagnoses. In its first two editions, DSM-I and DSM-II, homosexuality was found as a listed diagnosis. However, in 1973, the APA decided to remove homosexuality as a psychiatric diagnosis from the DSM-III and all following editions, including the current DSM-5. However, they replaced it with " sexual orientation disturbance" for people "in conflict with" their sexual orientation. Not until 1987 did homosexuality completely fall out of the DSM. This decision began the end of negative medicinal stigma surrounding homosexuality and other LGBTQ+ identities, and it was pivotal in generating similar shifts in other areas, such as the WHO. World Health Organization The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) determined by the WHO is the largest and most commonly utilized classification system for diseases around the globe. In the ICD-10, which was endorsed in 1990 and remains the most recently adopted version of the ICD, homosexuality was removed as a mental illness. However, other variations of sexual orientation were classified as mental illnesses, such as someone who "wishes it were different because of associated psychological and behavioral disorders." In the direction of progress, however, the ICD-11, which was finalized in 2018, removes sexual orientation from its classifications of mental illnesses, following the lead of the APA in 1973. While the ICD-11 is not yet used in widespread medical practice, it reflects the understanding that neither sexual orientation nor gender identity is indicative of mental illness. Legacy The declassification of homosexuality as a mental illness by the APA and WHO was an important step in removing the negative stigma surrounding LGBTQ+ identities. Overall, these decisions were vital milestones in normalizing and accepting the LGBTQ+ community from a medical and social standpoint. Dr. John Fryer giving his speech as Dr. Henry Anonymous to convince the APA to declassify homosexuality as a mental illness at the 1972 APA annual conference (Image Source: 217 Boxes of Dr. Henry Anonymous/Ain Gordan) References Drescher, J. (2015). Out of DSM: Depathologizing Homosexuality. Behavioral Sciences , 5 (4), 565–575. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs5040565 Burton, N. (2015, September 18). When Homosexuality Stopped Being a Mental Disorder . Psychology Today. Retrieved November 9, 2021, from https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/hide-and-seek/201509/when-homosexuality-stopped-being-mental-disorder. Fernández Rodríguez, M. (2018). Gender incongruence is no longer a mental disorder. JOURNAL OF MENTAL HEALTH AND CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY , 2 (5), 6–8. https://doi.org/10.29245/2578-2959/2018/5.1157 Cochran, S. D., Drescher, J., Kismödi, E., Giami, A., García-Moreno, C., Atalla, E., Marais, A., Meloni Vieira, E., & Reed, G. M. (2020). Proposed declassification of disease categories related to sexual orientation in the international statistical classification of diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11). FOCUS , 18 (3), 351–357. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.focus.18303

Content Warning: This article discusses a deeply traumatic event. Reader discretion is advised. June 12th, 2016, was a devastating day for the LGBTQ+ community after a tragic shooting at Pulse nightclub in Orlando, FL. Omar Mateen killed 49 people and injured 53 more at the Orlando club. The Pulse nightclub attack remains the second deadliest mass shooting in U.S. history. Timeline Pulse was one of the most popular gay clubs in the city, and that Saturday night also happened to be Latin night. 2:02 a.m. Bulletholes in the nightclub the day after the shooting.. (Image Source: Ed Burns/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0 ) Early in the morning, the police received reports of shots fired at the club. An off-duty officer attempted to restrain Mateen, but he was unsuccessful and the shooter was able to make his way into the club. Minutes later, police arrived at the scene and exchanged gunfire with the shooter. 2:09 a.m. An alarming post was made on Pulse's Facebook page, stating for “everyone [to] get out of Pulse and keep running.” Unfortunately, this chilling post was not the reality for many of the patrons in the club who became caught in the middle of gunshots. Hours later people were still being held hostage in the club. 5:00 a.m. SWAT teams began breaking down the back wall of the club to help victims escape. They did this through a controlled explosion in order to safely but quickly provide a route to safety for those inside. Eventually, many patrons, including the shooter himself, emerged from the building. Pulse night-club was located on Orange Ave. in Orlando FL. The image above depicts the layout of the club. Manteen entered the club and made his way to the dance floor. He continued around the back of the club and made his way to the restrooms. When police arrived, the wall that was broken down was the one leading to the restroom. (Image Source: Orlando City Planning Division blueprints) 5:15 a.m. Upon Manteen’s exit, a shootout occurred between him and the police, ultimately resulting in his death. Legacy This direct attack on LGBTQ+ and Latinx people continues to cause grief to this day and serves as a constant reminder of the hate and discrimination still faced by the LGBTQ+ community. Five years after the shooting, community members continue to come together at Pulse to celebrate and mourn those who lost their lives on June 12, 2016. Vigils are held and it is a time to advocate for those who were victims of homophobia and gun violence on that tragic night. (Image Source: Walter, FLICKR) LGBTQ + mental health is at a heightened risk following Florida's decision to veto funding and cut approximately “$900,000 in funding for state programs geared toward serving the LGBTQ+ population, including one that provides mental health programs to survivors of the Pulse nightclub shooting..." This decision, on the 2nd day of Pride and just before the 5th anniversary of the Pulse shooting, is a tell-tale sign of the work that needs to continue to be done to support LGBTQ+ communities. References Kelley, A. (2021, June 3). Florida Gov DeSantis vetoes mental health funding for Pulse shooting survivors . TheHill. https://thehill.com/changing-america/respect/diversity-inclusion/556703-florida-gov-desantis-vetoes-mental-health ‌ Zambelich, A., & Hurt, A. (2016, June 26). 3 Hours In Orlando: Piecing Together An Attack And Its Aftermath . NPR. https://www.npr.org/2016/06/16/482322488/orlando-shooting-what-happened-update

Before Marriage Equality Major Court Cases Taking it to the Supreme Court Legacy In the United States, the LGBTQ+ community has fought long and hard for equal rights. While the Stonewall Uprising is known as the spark for LGBTQ+ civil rights, legalizing marriage equality in the United States gave couples the rights they deserved. Activists long took to the streets to advocate for LGBTQ+ rights, and now it was time to take it to court. Before Marriage Equality Marriage is a civil right towards the freedom of happiness. For years, same-sex couples were denied this right and the benefits of marriage, which gave couples legal rights such as tax benefits, immigration rights, social security income, and employer benefits. Same-sex couples were also unable to receive other vital resources given to married couples, like health insurance benefits, welfare, domestic violence protections, and housing. In some states, domestic partnerships were an option for same-sex couples who lived together and wanted to recognize their relationships legally. These domestic partnerships allowed couples to seek some benefits (for instance, federal taxes), but not many. Domestic partnership’s rights, recognition, and benefits still vary significantly between states, agencies, and other individual companies. Marriage equality was essential for same-sex couples to ensure their rights and protections across the nation. Major Court Cases Baehr v. Miike was the first major same-sex marriage court case. Three same-sex couples filed a lawsuit against Hawaii in 1990, arguing that prohibiting same-sex marriage was a violation of Hawaii’s state constitution. The lawsuit sparked the conversation regarding legitimate interest in same-sex marriage from the LGBT community. The case was initially dismissed but then had a trial with the Hawaii Supreme Court. Before this trial, President Clinton signed the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) in 1996. It defined federal marriage only for heterosexual couples, but states had the freedom to define it differently. In 1996, Hawaii gave benefits to couples who were ineligible to get married. Two years later, an amendment to “grant the legislature the power to restrict marriage to opposite-sex couples” was placed on the ballot and passed. Massachusetts became the first state to legalize same-sex marriage in 2004, following the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court case Goodridge v. Department of Public Health . Taking it to the Supreme Court In 2009, Edith Windsor received a federal tax bill after the death of her wife, Thea Clara Spyer, because Windsor was not recognized as a surviving spouse. After being denied federal tax benefits, Windsor challenged the Supreme Court on recognizing same-sex couples married in legal states. In 2013, United States v. Windsor challenged section three of DOMA, which recognized marriage as a union between a man and a woman. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled section three of DOMA was “…unconstitutional and that the federal government cannot discriminate against married lesbian and gay couples to determine federal benefits and protection.” Jim Obergfell after the ruling. (Image Source: Elvert Barnes /Wikimedia Commons, CC BY SA ) Obergefell v. Hodges: An Iconic Case Jim Obergefell and John Arthur quickly heard the news of Windor’s success. Obergefell and Arthur decided to get married before Arthur passed away due to his health struggle. The couple lived in Ohio and traveled to Maryland for their wedding. After returning home, they went to an Ohio judge who ruled for Obergefell to be listed as the surviving spouse upon Arthur’s death. John Arthur passed away three months after their marriage. With the Judge’s ruling, Obergefell was listed on the death certificate. However, the state of Ohio appealed the Judge’s decision and reissued the certificate to exclude his name. Obergefell filed an appeal to the Supreme Court in 2014. On June 26th, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 on Obergefell v. Hodges in favor of federal same-sex marriage. Legacy The decision on Obergefell v. Hodges gave civil rights to millions of LGBTQ+ Americans. The White House was lit in rainbow lights, and the nation celebrated after years of protesting, boycotting, Queer politicism, and hardships. Legalizing marriage equality would not have been possible without Edith Windsor and Jim Obergefell’s perseverance and the hard work of the activists who came before us. References Andersen, E. A. (2017). Transformative Events in the LGBTQ Rights Movement. Indiana Journal of Law and Social Equality , 5 (2), 36. https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/ijlse/vol5/iss2/10 ACLU. (n.d.). Windsor v. United States . American Civil Liberties Union. Retrieved March 26, 2021, from https://www.aclu.org/cases/lesbian-and-gay-rights/windsor-v-united-states Defense of Marriage Act: Update to Prior Report . (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-04-353r.pdf Domestic Partner Benefit Eligibility: Defining Domestic Partners and Dependents—HRC Foundation . (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.thehrcfoundation.org/professional-resources/domestic-partner-benefit-eligibility-defining-domestic-partners-and-dependents Domestic Partnership Benefits . (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.glad.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/domestic-partnership-overview.pdf Domestic Partnership vs. Marriage: What’s the Difference? (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.rocketlawyer.com/family-and-personal/family-matters/marriage/legal-guide/domestic-partnership-vs-marriage-whats-the-difference Liptak, A. (2013, June 26). Supreme Court Bolsters Gay Marriage With Two Major Rulings. The New York Times . https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/27/us/politics/supreme-court-gay-marriage.html Rosenwald, M. S. (2015, April 6). How Jim Obergefell became the face of the Supreme Court gay marriage case. Washington Post . https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/how-jim-obergefell-became-the-face-of-the-supreme-court-gay-marriage-case/2015/04/06/3740433c-d958-11e4-b3f2-607bd612aeac_story.html

Origin Story The Aftermath EMK and the Barbie Movie Legacy Earring Magic Ken: Origin Story In the early 1990s, Ken was in trouble. Faced with lackluster sales of the doll, Mattel surveyed five-year-old girls and asked them if they thought Barbie should break up with Ken. The children said that they wanted Ken to stay with Barbie, but he needed to be cooler. This was a common sentiment; if you peruse Ken's past, you'll find plenty of mediocrity and bland choices, styles of the times but no doubt lacking. What happens next in the chain of events is uncertain; some sources say that the surveyed children made demands for Ken's new look, and some suggest that Mattel took it into their own hands. Either route, Mattel arrived at one stop: a brand-new Earring Magic Ken, a part of the Earring Magic Barbie line. Ken wearing his cockring necklace. (Image Source: HSW Static) Ken's makeover consisted of some chunky blonde highlights, a purple mesh shirt, a purple pleather vest, and an earring in his left ear. From Madonna’s dancers to Prince to Ballroom, this look was snatched right out of the queer community, and while appropriation was not new, Ken’s shiny new pendant wasn’t going to lose its roots so easily. Author Dan Savage remarked that the outfit was three-year-old rave couture and that the flashy pendant Ken sported was in fact a cockring. Men wore cockrings on a necklace to signal that they were gay to other people in the know, and some men would wear cockrings secured to their vest: on the right if they are a bottom, and on the left if they are a top. A covert communication system, cockrings soon found their way into fashion, as zipper pulls and accessories for the younger gay crowds that had no care for the code. The Aftermath This was during the AIDS crisis, and nobody wanted any part of queer culture outright. So, when Ken hit the scene as a newly out man, the queer community was thrilled. There had been Gay Bob and Billy Doll, proud gay dolls living in the fringes, but out of nowhere there was a mainstream representation of gay rave culture – albeit white and cis – in a time when plenty of people needed to be seen. However, after six months and record sales, Mattel recalled the doll. Shaving Ken featuring extra-long jorts and all blue accessories. (Image Source: Pic Click) Today, you won't find Earring Magic Ken in Mattel’s archives or even in the company’s vernacular. You will find his body recycled in the beach-themed Barbie line that immediately followed. We can guess that the use of the same doll, sans jewelry, was simply to recoup their investment. The next Ken to come was in 1994: Shaving Ken, a noticeably "straighter" doll with clunkier denim-clad fashion, dark brown hair, and a sturdier disposition. He had a literal beard (pun very much intended) that could be washed away with "aftershave" only to "grow" back in time. For the next several years, Ken was buried in heteronormativity. Earring Magic Ken and the Barbie Movie In Barbie (2023), we get to see a little Earring Magic easter egg; In a scene at Weird Barbie's House, you’ll notice a recalled Ken doll donning a purple leather vest. So while the movie didn't explicitly address the issues surrounding this Ken and Mattel's queer erasure, the fact that this Ken was banished as an outcast speaks for itself. Check out our post about gay Ken's movie cameo here on Instagram . Earring Magic Ken's Legacy The masses wanted more than what was deemed fashionable for straight men. Lisa McKendall, Manager of marketing communications for Mattel at the time, is quoted saying, "We never would have done this a few years ago. But now you see more earrings on men. They are more accepted in day-to-day life. We are trying to keep Ken updated." This demonstrates that Mattel’s design team had the intent to prey upon gay culture for notoriety and profit and only changed their tune because they had stepped too far into queerness. If Ken cannot pass for straight, he cannot exist. If gay men can be indescript about their sexuality, they can be appropriated for normative culture - but if they are too queer, if they pass the boundary that allows others complacency, they are worthless and deserve not only to lose their status but also their identity and their history. Unfortunately, this may be the case for Ken’s namesake, Ken Handler, the son of the creator of Barbie who is rumored to have died because of AIDS complications, with the cause of death allegedly being hidden by his family and the Mattel company. References Dupere, K. (June 29th, 2020). THE TRUE STORY OF MATTEL ACCIDENTALLY RELEASING A SUPER GAY KEN DOLL . In The Know. https://www.intheknow.com/2020/06/29/earring-magic-ken-gay/ Grasso, S. (February 16th, 2018). 20 Fabulous Facts About Ken Dolls . Daily Dot. https://www.dailydot.com/irl/ken-doll-barbie/ Savage, D. (1993). Ken Comes Out. Seattle Stranger . The Baltimore Sun. (1993). Toy industry tinkers with gender bending And Barbie’s Ken sports an earring. The Baltimore Sun .

The Dine (Navajo) The Culhua-Mexica (Aztecs) The Runa (Inca) and the Moche Overall Author's Note: I will never understand or be able to discuss this topic outside of the view of the colonizer. This is an unfortunate knowledge barrier that is better addressed than breached. Native people are in need of support on many fronts from non-native people, and I hope to write every word of this article to support, not rewrite, native history. If you are unfamiliar with the level of erasure that has taken place since European colonization, please understand that it greatly exceeds anything I will be able to portray. Whenever you see the term ‘colonized as,’ I am referring to the fact that the common names of the land and peoples we were taught to use in public school are all European constructs. Therefore, I am trying to use only the names used originally or retroactively by native people. Three things are apparent in the available sources of information about homosexuality* in the pre-colonial Americas; one is that while the modern LGBTQ+ community was largely established in the mid-twentieth century, queerness* existed hundreds of years ago. Two, homosexuality* is intrinsically linked with the diverse gender structure of native tribes. Three, the most accurate information on this topic is from native people. With that being said, this article will attempt to establish a partial picture of the queer* cultures that flourished hundreds of years ago. Indigenous Tribes of Turtle Island (colonized as North America) The Diné (colonized as the Navajo) is an active indigenous tribe on Turtle Island. Prior to European intervention, the Diné had a non-binary social structure incorporating four gender identities: women*, men*, feminine Nádleehi, and masculine Nádleehi. Nádleehi gender identities were determined as a person grew up and were typically not a birth assignment. A child in these cultures discovered how they wanted to express themselves based on their interests or “gifts” and partook in society in ways that suited them individually. Nádleehi tribe members were highly regarded and often held high social positions. We’wha was a lhamana of the Zuni tribe who lived in the 1800s and spent several months in Washington D.C as an esteemed guest. (Image Source: Pinterest) Other tribes had similar identities, like the Lhamana of the Zuni tribe and the Asegi of the Cherokee. A modern blanket term introduced to describe these identities is “two-spirit,” and while it is commonly used, it is not universally accepted by native peoples or equivalent to a queer identity. It is estimated that 155 tribes across Turtle Island embraced a multi-gendered culture. The expanded conceptions of identity in these societies seem to have overshadowed sexuality. While homosexual* relationships were common, they were not inherent. The Culhua-Mexica (colonized as the Aztecs) In particular, the stories of the civilizations in modern-day Mexico are almost exclusively accessed through a colonized perspective. The Spanish colonizers burned the libraries and destroyed much of the resources that would have provided access to objective truth. The Mexica held a vast empire that incorporated many different ethnicities and cultures. They had a complicated relationship with homosexuality*, particularly with the practice of sodomy. The levels of acceptance varied by region and ruler. A map of the Culhua Mexica (Aztec) empire at its height. (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons) It has been suggested that the laws banning homosexual* behavior in the empire were a tactic by the Mexica to separate conquered peoples in the region from their previous cultures and religions, which often had feminine two-spirit shamans. This implies that the Culhua-Mexica empire was not homophobic but trying to strip others of their rich, queer* past. A depiction of practitioners of sodomy being mauled in the street by the war dogs of conquistadors. (Image Source: The Lone Woman and Last Indians Digital Archive) We know that homosexuals* and two-spirit people were prevalent because of encounters between Hernan Cortés and the native people of the regions he explored. Cortés remarked in a letter to his King, “We know and have been informed without room for doubt that all practice the abominable sin of sodomy.” Bernal Diaz del Castillo, another conquistador, also quoted Cortés as saying, “...young men must cease to go about in female garments...” While these remarks are indicative of male-homosexuality*, there is no mention of female-homosexuality*. However, we can (reasonably) infer that these relationships took place given that the Mexica region also embraced an expanded gender foundation like the tribes to the north, which encompassed marriages and relationships between women*. Abya Yala (colonized as South America) The Runa (colonized as the Inca) and the Moche The Runa were the people that lived in the region of modern-day Peru. The language they spoke was Quechua. The name Inca, or Incan, actually comes from their emperor Sapa Inca, not the name for the people. The Runa empire reportedly held similar views on homosexuality* as the Mexica, yet both societies realistically failed to enforce these laws on a widespread basis. The term “Moche” is not used to describe a group of people by nationality or origin, but rather the creators of a distinctive form of art (mostly ceramic pots depicting artwork) found in and near the Runa empire. While sexually explicit artwork was destroyed en masse by the Spanish invaders, some artwork does survive today. Of what does exist of this art, there is a major collection that displays in full detail, gay-male* sex as well as other sexual positions that focused on female* pleasure rather than simple procreation. This is an interesting discovery and gives us just a small amount of insight into what homosexuality* was present in this region as well as all of Abya Yala. We can also infer that given the conditions on Turtle Island, Abya Yala societies carried similar notions and customs of homosexuality*. The queer* history of the rest of the continent exists somewhere, and likely among its indigenous people. Overall These societies had unique gender identities and sexualities that developed independently of the established gender binary in the Euro-colonized world. Much like in the crusades of the Middle Ages, the European invaders eradicated "opposing" cultures and demonized their practices. Dine Equality is a group working to undo hundreds of years of queer erasure and uplift LGBTQ+ natives to heal the damage in their community. You can find more information on their website: www.equalitynavajo.org . *The use of gendered language, the word queer, and the word homosexual is for clarity purposes. Still, it is important to consider that these concepts do not adequately describe indigenous cultures as they are euro-centric ideas. References Brundage, J. (1991). The Construction of Homosexuality. By David F. Greenberg. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988. x 635 p. $29.95. Church History, 60(1), 148-149. doi:10.2307/3168572 Cortés Hernán, & Morris, J. B. (1991). Hernando Cortés, Five Letters, 1519-1526 (p. 25). W.W. Norton. del Castillo, B. D. (1844). The Memoirs of the Conquistador Bernal Diaz Del Castillo . (J. I. Lockhart, Trans.) (Vol. 1) (p. 119). J. Hatchard and Son. Epple, C. (1998). Coming to Terms with Navajo Nádleehí: A Critique of Berdache, "Gay," "Alternate Gender," and "Two-spirit". American Ethnologist , 25 (2), 267–290. https://doi.org/10.1525/ae.1998.25.2.267 Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology at Harvard University. (n.d.). Who Were "Moche?" . Peabody Museum. https://www.peabody.harvard.edu/node/2505 Smithers, G. D. (2014). Cherokee “Two Spirits”: Gender, Ritual, and Spirituality in the Native South. Early American Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal , 12 (3), 626–651. https://doi.org/10.1353/eam.2014.0023 Vecchio, R. (2004, March 7th). Erotic Ceramics Reveal Dirty Little Secret. Los Angeles Times . https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-mar-07-adfg-pottery7-story.html Wilson, T. (2011). CHANGED EMBRACES, CHANGES EMBRACED? RENOUNCING THE HETEROSEXIST MAJORITY IN FAVOR OF A RETURN TO TRADITIONAL TWO-SPIRIT CULTURE. American Indian Law Review,36 (1), 161-188. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41495705

Who was Josephine Baker? Early Life Life as an Entertainer Working as a World War II Spy Fighting Against Segregation Death and Legacy Who was Josephine Baker? Josephine Baker on October 20, 1949 (Image Source: Carl Van Vechten, Van Vechten Collection at Library of Congress) Josephine Baker was an American-born French entertainer and performer, French Resistance agent, World War II spy, and civil rights activist. Baker’s career shows the ways entertainers can utilize their platforms to influence society and change the world. Josephine Baker became one of the most successful black performers France has ever seen. While she had four marriages with men, she was bisexual and had several relationships with women. When Hitler and the German army invaded France during World War II, Baker joined the fight against the Nazi regime. She transported secrets she heard while performing for the enemies with invisible ink, wiring messages, and information on her sheet music. Early Life A portrait of Josephine Baker in one of her extravagant performance looks. Baker was known for her unique style both in terms of looks and dance. (Image Source: General Photographic Agency/Getty Images) In the early summer in St. Louis, Missouri, Josephine Baker was born by the name Freda Josephine McDonald on June 3, 1906. Baker was raised by her two parents, who were also performers, and often found herself on stage with them as they performed throughout the Midwest, which was greatly segregated. Like many at the time, Baker’s parents never succeeded in their entertainment careers, forcing Josephine to make ends meet herself. To do this, Baker would often dance in the streets to collect money, much like street performers do in New York and other major cities today. While dancing one day at the age of 15, she was noticed by an African-American theatre troupe and asked to perform with them. Around the same time, Josephine got married, took on her husband's last name, Baker, and claimed her middle name, Josephine, as her first. Thus, she is now known as Josephine Baker. Life as an Entertainer Josephine Baker became among the most popular and sought-after performers, especially in France. Her unique choreography, which embodied traditional African styles and costumes, made her an unforgettable entertainer. Baker starred in many Vaudeville shows, a theatrical style of performance throughout the 20th century. She later moved to New York and immersed herself in the performance seen there. At this time, New York was experiencing the Harlem Renaissance, which was a revival and appreciation of African-American art and entertainment. After her time in New York, Baker moved her entertainment internationally to Paris, where she won over audiences, predominately white ones. Working as a World War II Spy Due to the outbreak of World War II, Josephine's career as a performer was put on hold. With the rise of Hitler and the Nazis, Baker found herself checking off all the boxes the Nazis were against. She was now in her third marriage, an interracial relationship with a French-Jewish man, as an openly bisexual woman. As Hitler and his army invaded their way into Paris, Baker, along with thousands of others, fled the city for her own safety. Once in Southern France, Baker was recruited by Jacques Abtey to take part in espionage for resistance against the Nazis as her celebrity status allowed for easier and more protected travel between countries. Baker was recruited by the French Resistance as a spy during World War II against Hitler and the Nazis. She utilized her celebrity status as well as a variety of espionage tactics in order to gather and spread information regarding the enemy. (Image Source: Studio Harcourt/Public Domain) Josephine Baker housed many other resistance fighters and provided them with the resources they needed. Due to her celebrity status, she was able to attend highly-ranked diplomatic parties and gatherings where she observed and took note of any behaviors or plans she noticed. She would write on her skin, pin notes in her underwear, and use invisible ink on her sheet music in order to record and pass on messages because she knew, as a celebrity, no security would suspect her of espionage or strip search her. Fighting Against Segregation After World War 2, Baker returned home to St. Louis, where she was shocked to see the widespread segregation that she had not fully understood as a child. Baker took it upon herself to stand up to segregation and once again used her platform as an entertainer to make change. Baker refused to perform for any segregated audiences, which often forced venues to integrate audiences if they wanted the prestige of having such a famous performer at their venue. Baker was recognized by the NAACP and was given the honor of speaking at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. Death and Legacy Josephine Baker is a prime example of celebrities using their platforms for positive social change. Throughout her career, Baker formed her “rainbow tribe,” which consisted of her 12 adopted children. She showed people could exist in harmony despite racial or cultural differences. Josephine Baker performed late into her life up until her passing on April 12, 1975. Josephine Baker adopted 12 children with varying backgrounds, nationalities, and ethnicities. She called her family the “Rainbow Tribe” and promoted the idea that people can live together and love despite the differences they may have. She fought against segregation and racism and showed that one’s skin color does not determine their worth or need to be loved. (Image Source: Wikimedia Commons) References Josephine Baker . (2017). National Women’s History Museum. https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/josephine-baker ‌ Siren of the Resistance: The Artistry and Espionage of Josephine Baker | The National WWII Museum | New Orleans . (2020, February). The National WWII Museum | New Orleans. https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/siren-resistance-artistry-and-espionage-josephine-baker#:~:text=Iconic%20entertainer%20of%20the%20Jazz,to%20high%2Dranking%20Axis%20officials